Kansas is home to an incredible diversity of caterpillars, from the iconic monarch to the dangerous puss caterpillar that can send you to the hospital.
Whether you’re exploring the tallgrass prairies or your backyard garden, you’ll encounter dozens of fascinating species that transform into some of North America’s most beautiful butterflies and moths.
Understanding which caterpillars call Kansas home isn’t just about satisfying curiosity—it’s about safety, conservation, and appreciating the intricate web of prairie life.
Some species are harmless garden visitors, while others pack a venomous punch that requires immediate medical attention.
Let’s explore the complete guide to Kansas caterpillars, from the common to the extraordinary.
1. Monarch Caterpillar
The monarch caterpillar (Danaus plexippus) stands as Kansas’s most recognizable caterpillar species, distinguished by its bold black, white, and yellow striping pattern. You’ll find these iconic larvae exclusively on milkweed plants throughout the state, where they feed voraciously before beginning their remarkable transformation.
These caterpillars play a crucial role in one of nature’s most incredible migrations, with Kansas serving as a vital corridor for monarchs traveling between Mexico and Canada. The distinctive warning coloration advertises their toxicity to predators—a defense mechanism acquired from consuming toxic milkweed compounds.
Pro Tip: Plant native milkweed species in your garden to support monarch populations. Swamp milkweed and common milkweed thrive in Kansas conditions.
During peak season, you might spot multiple generations of monarch caterpillars, with each taking approximately two weeks to complete their larval stage. The final generation of the year will become the super-generation that makes the incredible journey to Mexico’s overwintering grounds.
2. Black Swallowtail Caterpillar
Black swallowtail caterpillars (Papilio polyxenes) showcase one of nature’s most dramatic transformations as they mature. Early instars appear as small, dark caterpillars with white saddle markings, while mature larvae display stunning green bodies adorned with black bands and bright orange spots.
You’ll commonly find these caterpillars feeding on plants in the carrot family, including dill, fennel, parsley, and wild carrot throughout Kansas. Their host plant preferences make them frequent garden visitors, where they’re often welcomed by gardeners who appreciate the resulting beautiful butterflies.
When threatened, black swallowtail caterpillars extend a bright orange, forked organ called an osmeterium from behind their head. This defensive structure releases a foul-smelling chemical that deters predators—a fascinating adaptation you can observe by gently touching the caterpillar.
3. Giant Swallowtail Caterpillar
The giant swallowtail caterpillar (Papilio cresphontes) earns its common name “orangedog” from its mottled brown and cream coloration that perfectly mimics bird droppings. This clever camouflage helps protect them from predators while they feed on citrus family plants throughout Kansas.
These substantial caterpillars can reach impressive sizes before pupation, making them one of the largest butterfly larvae you’ll encounter in the state. They prefer plants like prickly ash, hop tree, and occasionally cultivated citrus plants in protected growing environments.
Like other swallowtail species, giant swallowtail caterpillars possess the defensive osmeterium that they deploy when disturbed. The resulting butterfly represents North America’s largest butterfly species, making the caterpillar stage particularly valuable for butterfly enthusiasts.
4. Pipevine Swallowtail Caterpillar
Pipevine swallowtail caterpillars (Battus philenor) display a unique appearance with their dark purple-black bodies covered in distinctive orange or red tubercles. These specialized structures give the caterpillars an almost alien appearance that’s unmistakable once you learn to recognize them.
You’ll find these caterpillars exclusively on pipevine plants (Aristolochia species) in Kansas, where they sequester toxic compounds that make both the caterpillar and resulting butterfly unpalatable to predators. This toxicity creates a foundation for one of nature’s most complex mimicry systems.
The pipevine swallowtail serves as the model species for several butterfly mimics, including the black swallowtail’s dark form and the spicebush swallowtail. This relationship demonstrates the intricate evolutionary connections between Kansas butterfly species.
5. Spicebush Swallowtail Caterpillar
Spicebush swallowtail caterpillars (Papilio troilus) undergo one of the most dramatic appearance changes as they develop. Early instars mimic bird droppings with their brown and white mottled coloration, while mature caterpillars transform into smooth, green larvae with distinctive eyespots.
The large, false eyespots on mature caterpillars serve as an effective predator deterrent, making the caterpillar appear like a small snake when viewed head-on. This remarkable adaptation showcases the evolutionary arms race between predators and prey in Kansas ecosystems.
These caterpillars primarily feed on spicebush, sassafras, and related plants in wooded areas throughout Kansas. Their preference for forest edge habitats makes them more common in eastern Kansas where suitable woodland environments provide optimal conditions.
6. Tiger Swallowtail Caterpillar
Tiger swallowtail caterpillars (Papilio glaucus) represent one of the most commonly encountered swallowtail species in Kansas. Mature caterpillars display a bright green coloration with distinctive yellow and blue eyespots that create an intimidating appearance when the caterpillar inflates its thorax.
You’ll find these versatile caterpillars on a wide range of host plants, including wild cherry, tulip tree, ash, and cottonwood. Their broad host plant acceptance makes them adaptable to various Kansas habitats, from urban areas to natural woodlands.
The species exhibits interesting sexual dimorphism in the adult stage, with females sometimes displaying dark morph forms that mimic the toxic pipevine swallowtail. This polymorphism adds complexity to butterfly identification in areas where multiple swallowtail species overlap.
7. Buckeye Caterpillar
Buckeye caterpillars (Junonia coenia) display a spiny appearance with their black bodies covered in branched spines and orange markings. These defensive structures make the caterpillars appear dangerous, though they’re actually harmless to handle with reasonable care.
These caterpillars show a strong preference for plants in the plantain and snapdragon families, including common plantain, toadflax, and various Veronica species. Their adaptability to disturbed habitats makes them common in agricultural areas and urban environments throughout Kansas.
Buckeye caterpillars are known for their rapid development and multiple generations per year in Kansas. This reproductive strategy allows populations to quickly respond to favorable conditions and explains their abundance during peak summer months.
8. Painted Lady Caterpillar
Painted lady caterpillars (Vanessa cardui) create distinctive silk shelters on their host plants, which include thistles, mallows, and numerous other plant families. These protective webbing structures help shield the caterpillars from predators and harsh weather conditions.
The species represents one of the world’s most widely distributed butterflies, and Kansas serves as an important breeding ground during their complex migration patterns. Some years bring massive painted lady irruptions, with millions of caterpillars appearing seemingly overnight across the state.
These adaptable caterpillars can utilize an remarkable variety of host plants, which contributes to their success in diverse Kansas habitats. Their ability to exploit disturbed areas and agricultural landscapes makes them one of the most resilient butterfly species in the region.
Key Insight: Painted lady migrations can be predicted by monitoring weather patterns in Mexico and the southwestern United States, where populations build before moving northward.
9. Red Admiral Caterpillar
Red admiral caterpillars (Vanessa atalanta) are solitary creatures that create individual silk shelters on nettle plants throughout Kansas. Unlike their painted lady relatives, these caterpillars show strong host plant specificity, feeding almost exclusively on various nettle species.
The caterpillars display variable coloration ranging from pale green to dark brown, often with distinctive pale lateral stripes. Their cryptic coloration and solitary habits make them challenging to locate, despite the species being relatively common throughout the state.
Red admirals cannot survive Kansas winters in any life stage, making them completely dependent on annual migrations from southern regions. This dependence on migration creates dramatic year-to-year population fluctuations that make some years exceptional for butterfly watching.
10. Mourning Cloak Caterpillar
Mourning cloak caterpillars (Nymphalis antiopa) are gregarious feeders that create impressive communal webs on willow, elm, and poplar trees. These social caterpillars can defoliate entire branches while developing, creating dramatic visual evidence of their presence.
The caterpillars display striking black bodies with white speckles and rows of red spots along their backs. Branched spines cover their bodies, giving them a formidable appearance that serves as an effective deterrent to many predators.
Unlike most butterfly species in Kansas, mourning cloaks overwinter as adults, hiding in tree crevices and other protected locations. This strategy allows them to emerge early in spring, often appearing on warm February days when snow still covers the ground.
11. Viceroy Caterpillar
Viceroy caterpillars (Limenitis archippus) create distinctive overwintering shelters called hibernacula by rolling leaves and securing them with silk. This adaptation allows them to survive Kansas winters as partially grown caterpillars, resuming development in spring.
The caterpillars feed exclusively on willow family plants, including various willow species, cottonwood, and aspen. Their specialized feeding habits restrict them to areas where these host plants are available, typically near water sources throughout Kansas.
Mature viceroy caterpillars display an unusual appearance with their mottled brown and white coloration and distinctive humped thorax. This unique body shape distinguishes them from other caterpillars and reflects their adaptation to feeding on tough willow leaves.
12. Cecropia Moth Caterpillar
Cecropia moth caterpillars (Hyalophora cecropia) represent North America’s largest native moth species, with mature caterpillars reaching impressive sizes of up to four inches long. These magnificent larvae display blue-green bodies adorned with colorful tubercles in red, orange, and yellow.
You’ll find these spectacular caterpillars on a variety of deciduous trees including maple, cherry, birch, and elderberry throughout Kansas. Their broad host plant range and impressive size make them one of the most sought-after caterpillars for nature enthusiasts and photographers.
The species has experienced significant population declines across its range, making Kansas populations particularly valuable for conservation efforts. Factors including habitat loss, pesticide use, and introduced parasites have contributed to their reduced numbers in many areas.
| Life Stage | Duration | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Egg | 10-14 days | Small, white, laid singly |
| Larva | 5-7 weeks | Blue-green with colorful tubercles |
| Pupa | 9-10 months | Large brown cocoon |
| Adult | 2-3 weeks | 6+ inch wingspan |
13. Polyphemus Moth Caterpillar
Polyphemus moth caterpillars (Antheraea polyphemus) are substantial, bright green caterpillars with distinctive red and silver spots along their sides. These impressive larvae can reach lengths of three to four inches, making them among the largest caterpillars you’ll encounter in Kansas.
The species utilizes an extensive range of host plants, including oak, maple, birch, and many other deciduous trees and shrubs. This adaptability has helped polyphemus moths maintain stable populations across Kansas despite environmental pressures affecting other large moth species.
Polyphemus caterpillars are known for their rapid growth rate and voracious appetite. A single caterpillar can consume an entire small branch of leaves during its development, demonstrating the incredible energy requirements of these fast-growing larvae.
14. Luna Moth Caterpillar
Luna moth caterpillars (Actias luna) display a beautiful pale green coloration with subtle yellow stripes and sparse, fine hairs covering their bodies. These ethereal-looking larvae feed on a variety of deciduous trees, with a particular preference for walnut, hickory, and birch species.
The caterpillars undergo five instars before pupation, growing steadily larger and more impressive with each molt. Their translucent green appearance provides excellent camouflage among the leaves of their host plants, making them challenging to spot despite their substantial size.
Luna moths produce multiple generations per year in Kansas, with caterpillars appearing from late spring through early fall. The species represents one of North America’s most beautiful moths, making the caterpillar stage particularly valuable for citizen science projects.
15. Io Moth Caterpillar
Io moth caterpillars (Automeris io) are among the most dangerous caterpillars in Kansas, armed with venomous spines that can cause severe pain, swelling, and allergic reactions. These bright green caterpillars with red and white stripes should never be handled without proper protection.
The caterpillars feed on a wide variety of plants, including corn, roses, willow, maple, and many other species. Their broad host plant range and adaptability to various habitats make them relatively common throughout Kansas, increasing the likelihood of human encounters.
Important Note: Io moth caterpillars can cause painful stings that may require medical attention. The venomous spines break off in skin and continue releasing toxins for hours after contact.
Young io moth caterpillars are gregarious, feeding together in groups that can quickly defoliate small plants. As they mature, they become more solitary, spreading out to reduce competition and predation pressure on individual caterpillars.
16. Imperial Moth Caterpillar
Imperial moth caterpillars (Eacles imperialis) display remarkable color variation, ranging from green to brown to nearly black, often with distinctive yellow or orange markings. This polymorphism may serve as an adaptation to different host plants or environmental conditions.
These large caterpillars feed on a variety of trees including oak, maple, pine, and sweet gum. Their ability to utilize both deciduous and coniferous hosts makes them adaptable to diverse Kansas forest environments, from eastern hardwood forests to planted pine stands.
Imperial moth populations have declined significantly in many parts of their range, making Kansas populations particularly important for the species’ conservation. Factors including habitat fragmentation and light pollution may be contributing to their reduced numbers.
17. Regal Moth Caterpillar
Regal moth caterpillars (Citheronia regalis), commonly known as hickory horned devils, are among the most impressive caterpillars in North America. Despite their fearsome appearance with large, curved orange and black horns, these giants are completely harmless to handle.
The caterpillars can reach lengths of up to six inches, making them the largest caterpillars found in Kansas. They feed primarily on hickory, walnut, and related trees, requiring substantial amounts of foliage to support their impressive growth rate.
Their intimidating appearance serves as an effective bluff, causing many predators to avoid these actually harmless caterpillars. The dramatic horns and spines are purely decorative, designed to make the caterpillar appear dangerous without any actual defensive capability.
18. Saddleback Caterpillar — Venomous
Saddleback caterpillars (Acharia stimulea) are among the most dangerous caterpillars in Kansas, featuring a distinctive brown “saddle” marking on their green bodies surrounded by venomous spines. These small but potent caterpillars pack a painful sting that can cause severe localized pain and systemic reactions.
You’ll find these hazardous caterpillars on a variety of plants including corn, cherry, apple, and many ornamental species. Their broad host plant range and small size make accidental encounters common, particularly during gardening activities or outdoor recreation.
The venomous spines contain toxins that cause immediate burning pain, followed by swelling, nausea, and potentially more serious allergic reactions. Medical attention may be necessary for severe stings, particularly in individuals with known sensitivities to insect venoms.
Important Note: If stung by a saddleback caterpillar, remove any visible spines with tape, apply ice, and seek medical attention if symptoms worsen or include difficulty breathing.
19. Puss Caterpillar — Venomous
Puss caterpillars (Megalopyge opercularis) represent the most dangerous caterpillars in Kansas, with venom potent enough to cause excruciating pain, muscle cramps, and potentially life-threatening allergic reactions. Their deceptively soft, fuzzy appearance hides hollow spines connected to venom glands.
These caterpillars feed on a variety of deciduous trees and shrubs, including oak, elm, maple, and rose. Their preference for common landscape plants increases the likelihood of human contact, making awareness of their appearance and dangers critically important.
Puss caterpillar stings are considered medical emergencies, with pain described as more intense than bee stings or jellyfish encounters. The venom can cause systemic effects including chest pain, difficulty breathing, and severe muscle cramping that may persist for days.
Emergency treatment typically involves immediate removal of embedded spines using tape, application of ice, and prompt medical evaluation. Some cases require prescription pain medication and monitoring for allergic reactions that could become life-threatening.
20. Hag Moth Caterpillar — Venomous
Hag moth caterpillars (Phobetron pithecium) earn their common name “monkey slug” from their bizarre appearance featuring nine pairs of variable-length projections that can be withdrawn or extended. These unusual caterpillars possess stinging hairs that cause painful reactions upon contact.
The caterpillars feed on a variety of deciduous trees and shrubs, showing particular preference for oak, cherry, and rose family plants. Their cryptic appearance and small size make them difficult to spot, increasing the risk of accidental contact during outdoor activities.
While less dangerous than puss caterpillars, hag moth caterpillar stings still cause significant pain, swelling, and potential allergic reactions. The stinging hairs can become embedded in skin, continuing to cause irritation for extended periods after initial contact.
21. Fall Webworm
Fall webworm caterpillars (Hyphantria cunea) are highly social creatures that create extensive silk webs encompassing entire tree branches. These communal caterpillars can cause significant defoliation of deciduous trees throughout Kansas, particularly during outbreak years.
The caterpillars display variable coloration, with some populations showing pale yellow-green bodies while others appear darker with more pronounced markings. This variation may reflect different host plant preferences or genetic differences between populations.
Despite their pest status, fall webworms serve as important food sources for many birds and other predators. Their predictable emergence patterns make them particularly valuable for species like migrating birds that time their movements to coincide with peak caterpillar abundance.
22. Eastern Tent Caterpillar
Eastern tent caterpillars (Malacosoma americanum) construct distinctive silk tents in the crotches of cherry, apple, and related trees throughout Kansas. These social caterpillars emerge from their communal shelters to feed, returning to the protection of their silk structures between feeding periods.
The caterpillars display striking blue and black bodies with white markings and a distinctive row of blue spots along their backs. Their gregarious behavior and conspicuous tents make them one of the most noticeable caterpillars during spring emergence periods.
Eastern tent caterpillars follow strict behavioral patterns, with entire colonies moving together to feeding sites and returning to their tents in coordinated fashion. This social organization provides protection from predators and helps regulate temperature within the colony.
23. Forest Tent Caterpillar
Forest tent caterpillars (Malacosoma disstria) are closely related to eastern tent caterpillars but do not construct the characteristic silk tents. Instead, these social caterpillars create silk mats on tree trunks and branches where they congregate between feeding periods.
The species undergoes periodic population explosions that can result in complete defoliation of forest areas. These outbreak cycles typically occur every 10-15 years and can affect millions of acres across the Great Plains region, including Kansas.
During outbreak years, forest tent caterpillars become significant ecological forces, influencing forest dynamics and providing massive food resources for bird populations. Their cyclical nature demonstrates the complex population dynamics that characterize many forest insect species.
24. Yellow-necked Caterpillar
Yellow-necked caterpillars (Datana ministra) are distinctive gregarious feeders that display coordinated defensive behaviors when threatened. When disturbed, entire groups of caterpillars rear up their front and back ends simultaneously, creating an intimidating display that deters many predators.
These caterpillars feed primarily on oak, hickory, and other deciduous trees, often completely defoliating small branches before moving to new feeding sites. Their group feeding behavior allows them to overcome plant defenses that might deter individual caterpillars.
The species’ synchronized defensive behavior represents one of the most dramatic examples of collective action among Kansas caterpillars. This coordinated response demonstrates the evolutionary advantages of social behavior in herbivorous insects.
25. Walnut Caterpillar
Walnut caterpillars (Datana integerrima) are closely related to yellow-necked caterpillars and display similar gregarious feeding behaviors and defensive postures. These caterpillars show strong preference for walnut family plants, including black walnut, hickory, and pecan trees.
The caterpillars can cause significant defoliation of their host trees, particularly during years with favorable weather conditions that support large populations. Their feeding damage rarely kills healthy trees but can stress trees and make them more susceptible to other problems.
Like their yellow-necked relatives, walnut caterpillars exhibit the characteristic defensive posture where groups of caterpillars simultaneously arch their bodies when threatened. This behavior creates an impressive display that effectively deters many potential predators.
26. Green Cloverworm
Green cloverworm caterpillars (Hypena scabra) are slender, pale green caterpillars that feed on legume plants throughout Kansas. Their subtle coloration and small size make them easily overlooked, despite their potential importance as agricultural pests in soybean and alfalfa fields.
The caterpillars move in a distinctive looping motion similar to inchworms, arching their bodies as they crawl. This locomotion pattern reflects their classification as a member of the looper moth family, distinguishing them from other caterpillar types.
Green cloverworms typically do not reach economically damaging levels in Kansas, but they can become locally abundant under favorable conditions. Their preference for legume crops makes them of particular interest to agricultural researchers and farmers.
27. Woolly Bear Caterpillar
Woolly bear caterpillars (Pyrrharctia isabella) are among Kansas’s most recognizable caterpillars, featuring dense bands of black and reddish-brown bristles. These hardy caterpillars are active late in the season and can survive freezing temperatures by producing antifreeze compounds in their body fluids.
The caterpillars feed on a remarkably wide variety of plants, including dandelions, plantain, clover, and many other herbaceous species. This broad host plant acceptance contributes to their success in diverse Kansas habitats, from prairies to urban areas.
Contrary to popular folklore, the width of the woolly bear’s brown band cannot predict winter weather severity. This persistent myth has been thoroughly debunked by scientific research, though the caterpillars remain beloved symbols of autumn throughout the region.
Pro Tip: Woolly bear caterpillars that survive winter will pupate in spring, emerging as Isabella tiger moths with cream-colored wings and black spots.
28. Tobacco Hornworm
Tobacco hornworm caterpillars (Manduca sexta) are large, green caterpillars with distinctive white diagonal stripes and a prominent horn projecting from their rear end. Despite their intimidating appearance, these caterpillars are completely harmless and cannot sting or bite.
The caterpillars feed on plants in the nightshade family, including tobacco, tomato, potato, and pepper plants. Their preference for agricultural crops makes them significant pests in some Kansas farming operations, though they also utilize wild nightshade species.
Tobacco hornworms can reach impressive sizes of up to four inches in length, making them among the largest caterpillars found on herbaceous plants in Kansas. Their rapid growth rate allows them to cause significant plant damage in a relatively short period.
29. Tomato Hornworm
Tomato hornworm caterpillars (Manduca quinquemaculata) closely resemble tobacco hornworms but can be distinguished by their blue-black horn and different stripe patterns. These substantial caterpillars are notorious garden pests that can quickly defoliate tomato plants and related crops.
The species utilizes the same host plant range as tobacco hornworms, focusing on nightshade family plants throughout Kansas. Their cryptic green coloration makes them difficult to spot among tomato foliage, often allowing significant damage to occur before detection.
Tomato hornworms are frequently parasitized by braconid wasps, which lay eggs inside the caterpillar’s body. Parasitized caterpillars develop white cocoons on their backs and should be left undisturbed to support these beneficial natural predators.
30. White-lined Sphinx Caterpillar
White-lined sphinx caterpillars (Hyles lineata) display remarkable color variation, ranging from bright green to black, often with distinctive yellow or orange markings. This polymorphism may help populations adapt to different host plants and environmental conditions across Kansas.
The caterpillars feed on an exceptionally wide range of plants, including evening primrose, grape, tomato, and numerous other species. This broad host plant acceptance makes them highly adaptable to various Kansas habitats and agricultural systems.
White-lined sphinx moths are strong migrants, and their caterpillars may appear in Kansas during population irruptions that bring large numbers northward from Mexico and the southwestern United States. These migration events can result in dramatic temporary increases in caterpillar abundance.
31. Tersa Sphinx Caterpillar
Tersa sphinx caterpillars (Xylophanes tersa) are distinctive caterpillars with prominent eyespots and a unique ability to retract their head into their thorax when threatened. This defensive behavior, combined with their eyespot markings, creates an effective snake mimicry display.
The caterpillars feed primarily on plants in the madder family, including wild coffee and related species found in southern Kansas. Their specialized host plant requirements limit their distribution compared to more generalist sphinx moth species.
Tersa sphinx caterpillars represent the northern edge of their range in Kansas, making local populations particularly interesting from a biogeographic perspective. Climate change may be allowing gradual range expansion northward for this primarily tropical species.
32. Banded Sphinx Caterpillar
Banded sphinx caterpillars (Eumorpha fasciatus) are large, impressive caterpillars that feed primarily on evening primrose and related plants throughout Kansas. These substantial larvae can reach lengths of three to four inches and display distinctive color patterns that vary with age and environmental conditions.
The caterpillars possess the characteristic sphinx moth horn at their rear end, though it’s less prominent than in hornworm species. Their robust build and rapid growth rate allow them to complete development quickly, which is advantageous in Kansas’s variable climate conditions.
Banded sphinx moths are strong fliers that may migrate seasonally, bringing caterpillars to Kansas from southern breeding areas. This mobility helps explain their presence in areas where host plants may not support year-round populations.
Safety Guidelines for Caterpillar Encounters
Understanding how to safely interact with Kansas caterpillars protects both you and these important ecological creatures. The five venomous species covered in this guide—io moth, saddleback, puss, and hag moth caterpillars—require particular caution and should never be handled directly.
- Always observe caterpillars without touching, especially unfamiliar species
- Wear gloves when gardening in areas where venomous caterpillars may be present
- Teach children to look but not touch when encountering caterpillars
- Keep a first aid kit available during outdoor activities in caterpillar habitat
- Learn to identify the most dangerous species in your area
If stung by a venomous caterpillar, immediate action can reduce the severity of symptoms. Remove any visible spines using tape, apply ice to reduce swelling, and monitor for signs of allergic reactions that may require emergency medical attention.
Most Kansas caterpillars are completely harmless and play vital roles in local ecosystems. By learning to distinguish dangerous species from harmless ones, you can safely enjoy observing these fascinating creatures while supporting conservation efforts that protect their habitats.
The incredible diversity of caterpillars in Kansas reflects the state’s position at the crossroads of multiple ecological regions. From prairie specialists to forest dwellers, these remarkable creatures continue to adapt and thrive across the Sunflower State’s varied landscapes.
Whether you encounter the iconic monarch or the fearsome-looking but harmless hickory horned devil, each species contributes to the rich tapestry of Kansas wildlife that makes the state a fascinating destination for nature enthusiasts and researchers alike.
